Introduction
The earliest Christian proclamation presents Jesus not as a metaphysical anomaly but as a human being perfectly empowered by God’s Spirit and exalted after his resurrection. This paper argues that the most historically plausible and biblically grounded Christology begins with Jesus’ humanity, continues through his Spirit‑anointing at baptism, and culminates in his exaltation as Lord and Messiah. Such a model not only aligns with the earliest strata of Christian tradition but also provides a coherent theological framework in which Jesus functions as the exemplar of Spirit‑enabled human life. In this view, Jesus reveals what humans can become when fully responsive to God’s Spirit, and his exaltation demonstrates the destiny God intends for all his children.
This argument proceeds in several stages. First, it establishes Jesus’ humanity as the unavoidable starting point for any historically responsible Christology. Second, it examines the biblical pattern of Spirit‑empowered figures and shows how Jesus fits squarely within this tradition. Third, it demonstrates that the earliest Christian proclamation emphasizes Jesus’ exaltation after resurrection rather than preexistence or ontological divinity. Fourth, it traces the later development of divine Christology, especially in the Gospel of John and second‑century Christian literature. Finally, it argues that a human, Spirit‑filled Jesus provides the most compelling foundation for Christian discipleship, since imitation of Jesus becomes a practical result of “follow me”.
This approach is not merely a theological preference; it is grounded in the textual, historical, and sociocultural realities of Second Temple Judaism. And, importantly, its predicate is clearly that salvation in the New Testament is nowhere claimed to be about a ticket to heaven, but rather to a life lived in the Kingdom of God, “on earth as it is in heaven”. This is the foundational bedrock on which the human, Messianic Jesus stands. This exalted human becomes the pattern for believers, who are likewise called to be transformed by the same Spirit that empowered Jesus. The exemplar theme thus stands at the heart of the New Testament’s vision of salvation to Spirit-endowed righteousness[i].
Jesus’ Humanity: The Unavoidable Starting Point
Biological and Familial Evidence
Any historically responsible Christology must begin with Jesus’s birth into a human family. The New Testament consistently presents Jesus as the son of Mary, with siblings James, Joses, Judas, Simon, and unnamed sisters (Mark 6:3). These familial references are not incidental; they reflect the early Christian conviction that Jesus was fully embedded in human biological and social structures. There is no biblical claim of divine genetics or metaphysical incarnation in the Synoptic Gospels or Acts. Instead, Jesus’ humanity is emphasized repeatedly. Paul speaks of Jesus as “born of a woman, born under the law” (Gal 4:4), and as one who was “descended from David according to the flesh” (Rom 1:3). The author of Hebrews likewise insists that Jesus shared “in flesh and blood” (Heb 2:14), underscoring the continuity between Jesus and the human family he came to redeem.
These statements are not theological afterthoughts; they are foundational to the earliest Christian proclamation. The earliest believers understood Jesus as a human being whose life and mission unfolded within the constraints and possibilities of human existence. This human starting point is essential for any Christology that seeks to be faithful to the earliest sources.
Human Limitations
Jesus’ humanity is further evidenced by his experience of human limitations. The Gospels portray him as subject to hunger (Matt 4:2), fatigue (John 4:6), and emotional distress (Mark 14:33–34). More significantly, Jesus exhibits limitations in knowledge. In Mark 13:32, he explicitly states that he does not know the day or hour of the eschatological consummation, a statement that would be incoherent if Jesus possessed divine omniscience. The fact that Jesus “grew in wisdom” (Luke 2:52) likewise indicates a developmental process inconsistent with metaphysical divinity. Growth in wisdom implies learning, maturation, and the acquisition of insight—activities that belong to human beings, not to an omniscient deity.
The author of Hebrews reinforces this portrait by asserting that Jesus “learned obedience through what he suffered” (Heb 5:8). Learning obedience is a process of moral formation, not a static attribute. It presupposes a human subject who encounters challenges, responds to them, and grows through them. These depictions collectively form a coherent picture: Jesus lived a genuinely human life, experiencing the full range of human limitations and undergoing the moral and spiritual development characteristic of human beings, but one wholly submitted to God and his Spirit.
The Baptism as the Turning Point
The baptism of Jesus marks a decisive turning point in his life and mission. In the Synoptic Gospels, the Spirit descends upon Jesus at his baptism (Mark 1:10; Matt 3:16; Luke 3:22), and God’s voice identifies him as “my beloved Son.” This moment inaugurates Jesus’ public ministry and signals his empowerment by God’s Spirit which, as John tells us (4:24), is God. The descent of the Spirit is not portrayed as a confirmation of preexistent divinity but as an act of divine anointing (at best a confusing episode if Jesus was ontologically God.) Jesus becomes the Spirit‑filled agent of God’s call into his kingdom, empowered to preach, heal, confront evil, and call God’s people back to him (“all Israel”).
The baptismal scene echoes Psalm 2, where the king is declared God’s son at his enthronement. The use of this imagery suggests that Jesus’ sonship is vocational rather than ontological. He is designated as God’s representative, endowed with the Spirit to fulfill his mission just as in the broader biblical tradition, individuals were empowered by the Spirit for specific tasks. The baptism thus marks the beginning of Jesus’ Spirit‑animated ministry, not the manifestation of an eternal divine nature.
Spirit‑Animation at Baptism: The Biblical Pattern
Hebrew Bible Precedents for Spirit‑Empowered Humans
The Hebrew Bible provides numerous examples of individuals empowered by God’s Spirit for leadership, prophecy, and deliverance. Moses is guided by God’s presence and speech (Ex 4:12). The seventy elders receive a portion of the Spirit given Moses to assist in governance (Num 11:25). Judges such as Othniel (Jdg 3:10), Gideon (Jdg 6:34), and Samson (Jdg 14:6) are empowered by the Spirit to deliver Israel. Kings like Saul (1 Sam 10:6) and David (1 Sam 16:13) receive the Spirit as a sign of divine authorization. Prophets such as Micah (Mic 3:8) and Ezekiel (Eze 2:2) speak and act under the Spirit’s influence. The Servant of Isaiah is anointed with the Spirit to proclaim good news (Isa 61:1).
These examples demonstrate a consistent pattern: God empowers human beings with his Spirit to accomplish his purposes. Spirit‑empowerment is not a sign of divinity but of divine commissioning. It marks individuals as agents of God’s will within the human community.
Jesus Fits This Pattern Perfectly
Jesus’ baptism and subsequent ministry fit seamlessly into this biblical pattern. The Spirit descends upon him, and he is immediately empowered for ministry. Luke emphasizes that Jesus returns from the Jordan “full of the Holy Spirit” and is led by the Spirit into the wilderness (Luke 4:1). After his temptation, he begins his ministry “in the power of the Spirit” (Luke 4:14). Jesus himself interprets his mission through the lens of Isaiah 61:1, declaring that the Spirit of the Lord is upon him because he has been anointed to proclaim good news (Luke 4:18).
Jesus’ miracles and exorcisms are likewise attributed to the Spirit. In Matt 12:28, Jesus states that he casts out demons “by the Spirit of God,” indicating that his authority derives from divine empowerment rather than inherent divinity. Peter summarizes Jesus’ ministry by saying that “God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and power” (Acts 10:38). This description aligns Jesus with the Spirit‑empowered figures of the Hebrew Bible and underscores the continuity between his mission and theirs.
Should We (and Did the Jews) Expect a Human Messiah?
In surveying passages of the Hebrew Bible that discuss or allude to the Davidic Messiah, we find that none even hints at his divinity. Many emphasize his descendance from David, something impossible for a divinity, as a practical matter. The following table itemizes the principal passages describing this Messiah, that Jesus stated he was – Jn 4:25-26
25The woman *said to Him, “I know that Messiah is coming (He who is called Christ); when He comes, He will declare all things to us.” 26Jesus *said to her, “I who speak to you am He.”
| Category | Passage | Davidic/Messianic Feature |
| Covenant | 2 Sam 7; 1 Chr 17 | Eternal Davidic throne |
| Psalms | 2, 72, 89, 132 | Ideal Davidic king; covenant reaffirmation |
| Isaiah | 9, 11 | Davidic ruler bringing justice and peace |
| Jeremiah | 23, 33 | “Righteous Branch” of David |
| Ezeiel | 34, 37 | Future Davidic shepherd‑king |
| Hosea | 3:5 | Return to “David their king” |
| Amos | 9:11 | Restoration of David’s booth |
| Micah | 5:2–5 | Ruler from Bethlehem |
| Zechariah Isaiah | 9, 12–14 52:13-53:12 | Davidic restoration and universal kingship God’s servant who will suffer |
Apostolic Preaching Emphasizes Spirit‑Empowerment, Not Preexistence
The sermons in Acts consistently portray Jesus as a human being empowered by God. Peter describes Jesus as “a man attested by God” through miracles and wonders (Acts 2:22). He emphasizes that God raised Jesus from the dead and exalted him to God’s right hand (Acts 2:36). Peter’s proclamation focuses on Jesus’ humanity, his Spirit‑empowered ministry, and his exaltation after resurrection. There is no mention of preexistence or incarnation.
Similarly, Paul’s early letters emphasize Jesus’ humanity and exaltation. In Rom 1:3–4, Paul states that Jesus was descended from David according to the flesh and appointed Son of God with power by the resurrection. This language reflects an exaltation Christology rather than an incarnation Christology. Jesus becomes Son of God at his resurrection, not by virtue of preexistent divinity.
Exaltation After Resurrection: The Earliest Christology
Resurrection → Exaltation → Sonship
The earliest Christian proclamation presents a sequence in which Jesus’ resurrection leads to his exaltation and his designation as Son of God. Paul’s statement in Rom 1:3–4 is particularly significant: Jesus is appointed Son of God with power by the resurrection. This appointment language indicates a change in status rather than the revelation of an eternal identity. Jesus becomes Son of God in a new and powerful sense through his resurrection and exaltation.
Peter’s sermon in Acts 2 reinforces this pattern. He declares that God has made Jesus “both Lord and Christ” (Acts 2:36) through resurrection and exaltation. The title “Lord” here reflects Jesus’ exalted status, not his preexistent divinity. Similarly, Philippians 2:9 states that God “highly exalted” Jesus and gave him the name above every name. The exaltation is God’s response to Jesus’ obedience, not the manifestation of an eternal divine nature.
The author of Hebrews likewise applies enthronement language to Jesus after his resurrection. Jesus sits at the right hand of God (Heb 1:3), receives the declaration “You are my Son” (Heb 1:5), and is addressed as “God” in a royal, representative sense (Heb 1:8). These statements reflect Jesus’ exalted status, not his preexistent divinity.
No Preexistent Divine Son in Earliest Strata
The Synoptic Gospels, Acts, and Paul’s early letters contain no explicit claims of Jesus’ preexistence. Their Christology is rooted in Jesus’ humanity, Spirit‑empowerment, and exaltation. The absence of preexistence language in these sources is significant. It indicates that the earliest Christian communities understood Jesus as a human being whom God raised and exalted. Preexistence and incarnation themes emerge later, particularly in the Gospel of John and second‑century Christian literature.
Ascension as Enthronement
The ascension of Jesus is portrayed as his enthronement at God’s right hand. This imagery draws on Psalm 110, where the king is invited to sit at God’s right hand. The ascension signifies Jesus’ participation in divine authority, not divine ontology. Jesus shares in God’s rule as the exalted human representative, fulfilling the role envisioned for the ideal king in the Hebrew Bible.
The Late Development of Divine Christology
The Gospel of John as the Turning Point
The Gospel of John represents a significant development in early Christian Christology. Written between 90 and 110 CE, John reflects a mature theological perspective that emphasizes Jesus’ preexistence, divine identity, and cosmic significance. The prologue presents Jesus as the Logos who was with God and was God (John 1:1), and the Gospel contains numerous “I am” sayings that echo divine self‑identification. These themes are absent from the Synoptic Gospels and Acts, indicating that John represents a later stage in Christological development.
Early church fathers such as Ignatius, Irenaeus, and Tertullian rely heavily on John to articulate divine Christology. Their use of these late Johannine themes reflects the growing influence of John’s theological perspective in the second century, overcoming its earlier lack of favor[ii],[iii]. John’s Christology should not be read back into the earliest Christian proclamation. It represents a later theological development rather than Christianity’s original apostolic message.
Extrabiblical Divine‑Jesus Sources
Several second‑century texts reflect a developing divine Christology. The Odes of Solomon contain possible preexistence themes. The Ascension of Isaiah portrays a heavenly Christ figure who descends through the heavens. The Shepherd of Hermas contains ambiguous but non‑incarnational Christology. Second‑century apologists such as Justin Martyr and Athenagoras articulate Logos Christology influenced by Greek philosophical concepts.
These developments reflect the growing influence of Gentile philosophical categories[iiib] and the need to defend Jesus’ authority in a pluralistic intellectual environment. They also reflect the tendency of mythic language to become metaphysical doctrine over time.
Why These Developments Occurred
The development of divine Christology in the late first and second centuries can be attributed to several factors. Gentile converts brought philosophical categories that shaped their understanding of Jesus. The need to defend Jesus’ authority against rival religious (e.g., Ebionite) and philosophical (e.g., Gnostic) systems encouraged the articulation of higher Christology. Anti‑heretical polemics, particularly against Docetism and adoptionism, led to the development of more metaphysical Christological formulations. Over time, later poetic and symbolic language about Jesus’ relationship to God became literalized into metaphysical doctrine.
Jesus as Exemplar: The Heart of the New Testament Message
The New Testament repeatedly presents Jesus not merely as an object of belief but as the model for human life under the influence of God’s Spirit. This theme is woven throughout the Gospels and Epistles, forming a coherent pattern in which Jesus’ humanity is essential to his role as exemplar. The call to imitate Jesus appears in diverse contexts, yet the underlying assumption remains consistent: Jesus’ life is paradigmatic for believers precisely because he lived as a Spirit‑filled human being, providing an attainable model for living like Christ.
New Testament Calls to Imitate Jesus
The Synoptic Gospels present discipleship as imitation from the outset. Jesus’ invitation, “Follow me” (Mark 1:17), is not merely a summons to accompany Jesus but a call to adopt his way of life. His summons assumes his disciples can live it out. When Jesus later declares, “If anyone would come after me, let him deny himself and take up his cross and follow me” (Mark 8:34), he frames discipleship as a pattern of self‑giving obedience modeled on his own. Matthew reinforces this theme when Jesus says, “Learn from me, for I am gentle and lowly in heart” (Matt 11:29). The invitation to learn from Jesus presupposes that his character and conduct are accessible to human imitation.
The Epistles deepen this theme. Paul urges believers to “imitate me, as I imitate Christ” (1 Cor 11:1), indicating that Christ’s life provides the normative pattern for Christian behavior. In Phil 2:5, Paul exhorts believers to “have the same mind that was in Christ Jesus,” linking ethical transformation to Christ’s own humility and obedience. Peter likewise states that “Christ suffered for you, leaving you an example, so that you might follow in his steps” (1 Pet 2:21). The author of 1 John declares that “whoever says he abides in him ought to walk in the same way in which he walked” (1 John 2:6). These passages collectively reveal a pervasive New Testament conviction: Jesus’ life is the model for Christian existence.
This theme is reinforced by Paul’s statement that believers are to be “conformed to the image of his Son” (Rom 8:29). Conformity to Christ’s image is not metaphysical but moral and spiritual. It presupposes that Jesus’ life is the pattern for human transformation. Similarly, Paul’s exhortation to “put on the Lord Jesus Christ” (Rom 13:14) suggests that believers are to adopt Jesus’ character and conduct as their own. The exemplar theme thus stands at the heart of the New Testament’s vision of discipleship.
Exemplar Christology Requires a Human Jesus
The exemplar theme presupposes Jesus’ humanity. One cannot meaningfully imitate a metaphysically divinity whose attributes include omniscience, omnipotence, and immutability. Divine attributes are not imitable; they are intrinsic to God alone. If Jesus possessed such attributes during his earthly life, imitation would be impossible. The New Testament’s repeated calls to imitate Jesus therefore imply that Jesus lived a genuinely human life, empowered by God’s Spirit (as he, himself, tells us – Phil 4:13) rather than by inherent divinity.
Jesus’ humanity makes his obedience meaningful. His moral choices, struggles, and growth are intelligible precisely because he’s human. When Jesus resists temptation (Heb 4:15 – the God of the Universe tempted?), learns obedience through suffering (Heb 5:8), and grows in wisdom (not something God does — Luke 2:52), he demonstrates the process of human moral formation. These experiences would be incoherent if Jesus were metaphysically divine, for God cannot be tempted, cannot learn, and cannot grow. Jesus’ humanity is thus essential to his role as exemplar.
The Spirit Given to Believers Mirrors Jesus’ Empowerment
The New Testament consistently teaches that the same Spirit who empowered Jesus is given to believers. Paul states that the Spirit who raised Jesus from the dead dwells in believers and will give life to their mortal bodies (Rom 8:9–11). This parallel between Jesus’ empowerment and the Spirit’s work in believers reinforces our exemplar theme. Believers are not called to imitate Jesus through sheer human effort but through the Spirit’s transformative power[iv].
Paul’s description of life in the Spirit in Gal 5:16–25 mirrors Jesus’ own Spirit‑formed character. The fruit of the Spirit—love, joy, peace, patience, kindness, goodness, faithfulness, gentleness, and self‑control—reflects the qualities evident in Jesus’ life. The Spirit’s work in believers thus enables them to embody the same virtues that characterized Jesus.
The transformation described in 2 Cor 3:18 further reinforces this parallel. Believers are “being transformed into the same image from one degree of glory to another,” and this transformation is accomplished “by the Lord who is the Spirit.”[v] The Spirit’s role in shaping believers into Christ’s image underscores the continuity between Jesus’ Spirit‑empowered life and the Spirit’s work in the Christian community.
Pentecost provided a corporate parallel to Jesus’ baptism. Just as the Spirit descended upon Jesus at the beginning of his ministry, the Spirit descends upon the disciples at Pentecost, empowering them for witness and mission (Acts 2). This parallel suggests that Jesus’ baptism is not a metaphysical event but a paradigmatic moment of Spirit‑empowerment that is to be replicated in the life of the church.
Jesus’ Defense of “Son of God” Language
The title “Son of God” has often been interpreted as a claim to metaphysical divinity. However, Jesus’ own use of the title suggests a vocational rather than ontological meaning. His defense of the title in John 10:34–36 is particularly instructive.
John 10:34–36 and Psalm 82
When accused of blasphemy for claiming to be the Son of God, Jesus cites Psalm 82:6: “I said, you are gods, sons of the Most High.” In this psalm, human Jdges are called “gods” and “sons of the Most High” because they exercise divine authority in their judicial role. Jesus argues that if human Judges can be called “gods” without blasphemy, then his own claim to be the Son of God should not be considered blasphemous. His argument presupposes that “Son of God” is a vocational title rooted in obedience to and representation of God, not a claim to metaphysical divinity.
Jesus’ use of Psalm 82 is significant because it situates his sonship within the broader biblical tradition of human beings designated as God’s sons. His argument would be incoherent if he intended “Son of God” to signify ontological equality with God. Instead, he appeals to a category in which humans are called “sons of God” because they represent God’s authority.
Old Testament Uses of “Son of God” for Humans
The Old Testament frequently uses “son of God” language for human beings. Israel is called God’s son (Ex 4:22; Hos 11:1). Kings are designated as God’s sons (2 Sam 7:14; Ps 2:7; Ps 89:26–27). Jdges are called “sons of the Most High” (Ps 82). Even angels are referred to as “sons of God” (Job 1:6). These uses demonstrate that “son of God” is a relational and vocational category, not a metaphysical one[vi].
Jesus’ claim to be the Son of God thus aligns with this biblical pattern. His sonship reflects his obedience, his representation of God, and his Spirit‑empowerment. It does not imply metaphysical divinity.
Sonship as Vocational, Not Ontological
Jesus’ sonship is rooted in his obedience to God’s will and his role as God’s representative. His baptism marks the beginning of his sonship in a vocational sense, echoing the enthronement language of Psalm 2. His exaltation after resurrection further confirms his sonship, as God appoints him as Lord and Messiah (Acts 2:36). Sonship in the New Testament thus reflects Jesus’ relationship to God as the obedient, Spirit‑empowered agent of God’s kingdom.
This vocational understanding of sonship aligns with the earliest Christian proclamation and avoids the metaphysical complexities associated with later Christological developments. It also reinforces Jesus’ role as exemplar, since his sonship is rooted in qualities that believers are called to emulate.
Challenging Texts and Traditional Objections
Several New Testament passages have been interpreted as supporting divine Christology. However, a careful examination of these texts reveals that they can be understood within the framework of a human, Spirit‑empowered Jesus. This section addresses some of the most commonly cited passages and offers interpretations consistent with the earliest Christology.
Johannine Preexistence (John 1; 8:58; 17:5)
The Gospel of John contains explicit preexistence language, particularly in the prologue (John 1:1–18). However, John’s theological idiom reflects a later Christological development that emerged in the late first century. The Logos concept draws on Jewish Wisdom traditions and Hellenistic philosophical categories. The portrayal of Jesus as the incarnate Logos is a theological interpretation, not a historical biography.
Similarly, Jesus’ statement “Before Abraham was, I am” (John 8:58) reflects Johannine theological symbolism rather than a literal claim to preexistence. The “I am” sayings echo divine self‑identification in the Hebrew Bible but function within John’s theological narrative rather than as metaphysical assertions.
Jesus’ prayer in John 17:5, in which he asks to be glorified with the glory he had with the Father before the world existed, can be understood within the framework of Jewish apocalyptic literature, where heavenly glory is a symbolic representation of divine favor and eschatological destiny. These passages reflect Johannine theology rather than the earliest apostolic understanding.
Pauline Preexistence (Phil 2:6–11; Col 1:15–20)
Phil 2:6–11 is often cited as evidence of Pauline preexistence Christology. However, many scholars interpret this passage as a pre‑Pauline hymn that employs Adamic typology. Jesus, as the second Adam, does not grasp at equality with God but humbles himself and is exalted by God. The hymn thus reflects an exaltation Christology rather than an incarnation Christology.
Col 1:15–20 likewise employs hymnic language that can be understood in corporate and representative terms. Jesus is the image of the invisible God and the firstborn of all creation in the sense that he embodies God’s purposes and inaugurates the new creation. The passage reflects poetic and symbolic language rather than metaphysical ontology.
“Before Abraham Was, I Am”
As noted above, John 8:58 reflects Johannine theological idiom rather than a literal claim to preexistence. The statement can be understood within the framework of Wisdom personification, where Wisdom speaks in ways that transcend temporal categories. Jesus’ use of this language reflects his role as the embodiment of God’s revelatory wisdom, not metaphysical divinity.
“Thomas Said, ‘My Lord and My God’”
Thomas’ confession in John 20:28 reflects post‑resurrection exaltation language. In the context of Johannine theology, “God” can function as a title of divine authority rather than a metaphysical statement (see Ps 82). The confession reflects the community’s recognition of Jesus’ exalted status rather than an assertion of ontological equality with God.
Trinity Doctrine
The doctrine of the Trinity emerged in the fourth century as a response to theological controversies and philosophical challenges (notably, the Arians). It is not present in the earliest Christian proclamation and is not required by the earliest Christology. The Trinity represents a later theological development that seeks to articulate the relationship between God, Jesus, and the Spirit in metaphysical terms. The earliest Christology, however, is rooted in Jesus’ humanity, Spirit‑empowerment, and exaltation.
Verses That Only Make Sense If Jesus Is Human
Several New Testament passages are difficult to reconcile with divine Christology but make perfect sense within the framework of a human, Spirit‑empowered Jesus. These passages reinforce the plausibility of the exemplar model.
Mk 10:18 18And Jesus said to him, “Why do you call me good? No one is good except God alone.
Jn 14:28 28 You heard me say to you, ‘I am going away, and I will come to you.’ If you loved me, you would have rejoiced, because I am going to the Father, for the Father is greater than I.
Hierarchy within a single divine essence is incoherent. Jesus’ statement reflects his subordinate status as a human agent empowered by God.
Mk 13:32 32“But concerning that day or that hour, no one knows, not even the angels in heaven, nor the Son, but only the Father.” (Jesus’ ignorance is perfectly natural if he is human.)
Lk 2:52 52And Jesus increased in wisdom and in stature and in favor with God and man. (God cannot grow in wisdom.)
Heb 5:8 8Although he was a son, he learned obedience through what he suffered. (Presupposes human moral formation.)
Jn 20:17 17Jesus said to her, “Do not cling to me, for I have not yet ascended to the Father; but go to my brothers and say to them, ‘I am ascending to my Father and your Father, to my God and your God.’” (Presupposes Jesus’ humanity. God cannot have a God.)
Ac 2:22 22“Men of Israel, hear these words: Jesus of Nazareth, a man attested to you by God with mighty works and wonders and signs that God did through him in your midst, as you yourselves know— (“a man attested by God,” reflects the earliest apostolic proclamation.)
Ac 10:38 38how God anointed Jesus of Nazareth with the Holy Spirit and with power. He went about doing good and healing all who were oppressed by the devil, for God was with him. (God does not need to be anointed.)
1Co 15:28 28When all things are subjected to him, then the Son himself will also be subjected to him who put all things in subjection under him, that God may be all in all.
Heb 2:17-18 17Therefore he had to be made like his brothers in every respect, so that he might become a merciful and faithful high priest in the service of God, to make propitiation for the sins of the people. 18For because he himself has suffered when tempted, he is able to help those who are being tempted.
Mt 27:46 46And about the ninth hour Jesus cried out with a loud voice, saying, “Eli, Eli, lema sabachthani?” that is, “My God, my God, why have you forsaken me?”
Ro 1:3-4 3concerning his Son, who was descended from David according to the flesh 4and was declared to be the Son of God in power according to the Spirit of holiness by his resurrection from the dead, Jesus Christ our Lord, (Jesus becomes Son of God at resurrection, which presupposes exaltation rather than incarnation.)
Jn 5:19 19So Jesus said to them, “Truly, truly, I say to you, the Son can do nothing of his own accord, but only what he sees the Father doing. For whatever the Father does, that the Son does likewise.
Jn 10:34-36 34Jesus answered them, “Is it not written in your Law, ‘I said, you are gods’? 35If he called them gods to whom the word of God came—and Scripture cannot be broken— 36do you say of him whom the Father consecrated and sent into the world, ‘You are blaspheming,’ because I said, ‘I am the Son of God’?” (Jesus defends his sonship using Psalm 82, presupposing vocational sonship.)
Collectively, these passages reinforce the evidence for and plausibility of a human, Spirit‑empowered Jesus.
The Plausibility and Power of a Human, Spirit‑Filled Jesus
Historically Coherent
A human, Spirit‑filled Jesus fits the sociocultural and religious context of Second Temple Judaism. Spirit‑empowered figures were common in Jewish tradition, and exaltation after death was a familiar motif in apocalyptic literature. The earliest Christian proclamation aligns with these categories, presenting Jesus as a human being whom God raised and exalted.
Theologically Straightforward
This model preserves monotheism by distinguishing between God and Jesus. It grounds salvation in transformation rather than metaphysical assent. Jesus becomes the pattern for human life, demonstrating what humans can become when filled with God’s Spirit. The Spirit’s role in empowering Jesus and believers reinforces the continuity between Jesus’ life and Christian discipleship. He becomes one Jews can at least consider, as opposed to summarily dismissing based on a divinity claim.
Ethically Transformative
A human, Spirit‑filled Jesus provides a compelling foundation for Christian ethics. Discipleship becomes imitation rather than metaphysical speculation. Jesus’ life becomes the pattern for human conduct, and the Spirit empowers believers to embody his virtues. This model fosters a transformative vision of Christian life rooted in moral and spiritual formation.
Reflections on the Beauty of the Spirit-Empowered Man
His Message of Love: Human, Courageous, and Transformative
When Jesus proclaims love — for God, for neighbor, for enemy — he does so not as a divine being dispensing metaphysical truths from a position of infallibility, but as a human being who has learned compassion through experience, suffering, and Spirit‑formed insight. His love is not abstract; it is embodied in concrete acts of mercy, forgiveness, and solidarity.
Jesus’ love is courageous. He loves in ways that defy social boundaries: healing lepers, eating with tax collectors, speaking with Samaritans, and welcoming children. These actions are not divine condescension; they are human acts of moral bravery. Jesus models a love that is costly, inconvenient, and socially risky — the kind of love that humans can imitate because it arises from human empathy empowered by God’s Spirit available to them.
His love is also transformative. When Jesus teaches that the greatest commandment is love (Mark 12:29–31), he is not asking for metaphysical heroism from us, but a practical, Spirit-enabled reality. His love is the fruit of his Spirit‑empowered life, and it becomes the pattern for the community he forms. The early Christians understood this: “Walk in love, as Christ loved us” (Eph 5:2). Jesus’ love is endearing precisely because it is achievable by us through the Spirit.
His Unparalleled Model of Sacrifice to God: Obedience, Trust, and Courage
Jesus’ sacrifice was not a divine performance but a human act of obedience. He offers himself to God not because he possesses divine foreknowledge or metaphysical immunity but because he completely trusts God in the face of uncertainty, fear, and suffering. He staked his life on his God.
His obedience was learned (Heb 5:8). It was shaped through struggle, prayer, and perseverance. Jesus’ sacrifice was endearing because it was costly. He experiences anguish in Gethsemane, pleading with God for another path (Mark 14:36). His willingness to submit to God’s will arises from Spirit-reinforced trust, not divine invincibility.
His courage is profoundly human. He faces betrayal, injustice, torture, and death without divine detachment. His cry of abandonment on the cross (Mark 15:34) reveals the depth of his human suffering. Yet he remains faithful. This fidelity is the heart of his exemplar role: Jesus shows what humans can become when fully surrendered to God’s Spirit.
His sacrifice is overwhelming because it is human. It is the sacrifice of a man who trusts God enough to give everything — including his life — for the sake of God’s people and his kingdom.
Opinions of Western Literary Giants
The following quotes and commentaries serve to underscore the power of the reality of the human Jesus in Western thought.
Fyodor Dostoevsky – “He came softly, unobserved, and yet all knew Him.”
Dostoevsky’s Jesus is gentle, humble, and profoundly human. He arrives without spectacle, without divine coercion, without metaphysical force — only with the quiet authority of love. His presence is recognized not because he is God in a metaphysical sense, but because his humanity radiates moral beauty. Dostoevsky’s Jesus wins hearts through compassion, not power.
Leo Tolstoy – “The teaching of Jesus is simply the highest and best of what humanity has ever dreamed.”
Tolstoy’s Jesus is endearing because he is human: his moral greatness is attainable, imitable, and transformative.
Albert Schweitzer – “He comes to us as One unknown… He commands, and to those who obey Him, He reveals Himself.”
Jesus’s humanity is what makes his summons powerful: he commands by example, and he reveals himself through the lived experience of following him.
Jim Elliot – “He is no fool who gives what he cannot keep to gain what he cannot lose.”
This line is not about metaphysics — it is about human surrender. Jim saw Jesus’ sacrifice as the pattern for human life: giving oneself wholly to God, trusting God’s purposes even when the cost is total.
Dietrich Bonhoeffer – “When Christ calls a man, he bids him come and die.” (I’ve written on this idea in Decoding Paul and YHVH.)
Bonhoeffer’s Jesus is the human exemplar of sacrificial obedience. His love is costly, his compassion is courageous, and his surrender to God is total. Bonhoeffer emphasizes Jesus’ humanity because it is precisely Jesus’ human obedience — not divine inevitability — that makes his sacrifice morally compelling and imitable.
G.K. Chesterton – “The life of Jesus is a story so simple that it would break the heart of any man.”
Chesterton sees Jesus’ humanity as the source of his emotional power. His compassion, humility, and suffering are not divine theatrics but human experiences that evoke deep empathy and identification. Chesterton’s Jesus is endearing because he is vulnerable, loving, and sacrificial — the perfect exemplar of Spirit‑formed humanity.
Conclusion
The earliest Christian proclamation presents Jesus as a human being empowered by God’s Spirit and exalted after resurrection. This model is historically plausible, biblically grounded, and theologically compelling. It aligns with the sociocultural context of Second Temple Judaism, fits the earliest Christian sources, and provides a coherent framework for understanding Jesus’ role as exemplar. Jesus’ humanity is essential to his mission, his obedience is meaningful because he shares the human condition, and his exaltation demonstrates the destiny God intends for humanity.
A human, Spirit‑filled Jesus offers a powerful vision of Christian discipleship. Believers are called to imitate Jesus, to be conformed to his image, and to embody his virtues through the Spirit’s transformative power. This model preserves monotheism, avoids anachronistic metaphysics, and grounds salvation in moral and spiritual transformation. It invites believers to follow Jesus not as a distant metaphysical deity but as the Spirit‑filled human exemplar who reveals what humans can do when fully responsive to God’s Spirit.
Those who hold to the pre-existent, incarnate Jesus have to explain in what way, precisely, the Jesus of the New Testament can be discerned as incarnate vs the filled and animated by God’s Spirit human. That task appears impossible. Same human biology and its limitations, same demonstration of being the conduit for God’s miracles, love, and compassion; same experience of being brutally murdered; same resurrection; same glorification with God. The only argument I have heard put forward is that the incarnation honors Church doctrines and tradition devised hundreds of years after the life and resurrection of the man in question.
This Christology deserves renewed attention in contemporary theology. It offers a coherent, historically grounded, and ethically transformative vision of Jesus that aligns with the earliest Christian proclamation and provides a compelling foundation for Christian life.
[i] See Decoding Paul and YHVH
[ii] Epiphanius, Panarion 51, the “Alogi” – describing the earlier rejection of both John and Revelation as canonical; alleging John was a forgery by Cerinthus.
[iii] Was the Gospel of John Originally Favored by the Heretics? – Canon Fodder
[iiib] The Revolt That Rewrote the Church
[iv] A precondition of this Spirit-effected empowerment is one’s death to self. This is the message Jesus taught in his “pick up your cross” message. The parameters of the condition are clear: one cannot live for God if he is living for himself. Jesus, in his ultimate submission to the Father actually died twice: first, at the river where he died to himself to allow God to act through him. Second, he died on the cross not to further sublimate himself but rather to fulfill God’s purpose of inaugurating the New Covenant’s end of death, which was enabled through Jesus’s resurrection as the Christ.
[v] I have observed elsewhere that associating the Spirit as of God or as of “the Lord”/Christ is not an attempt at a distinction. It is, rather, a confession that the same Spirit (that is, God – Jn 4:24) works where and in whom he chooses.
[vi] Jesus here in Jn 10:34 references Ps 82:6 in which Judges are identified both as “gods” and as “sons of the Most High”. Jesus’s point was that his identification as “Son of God” was no more controversial than the identification of appointed Jdges as “gods” – simply ones in obedient service to God. Examples include Exodus 4:16,22-23, Deut 14:1, Hos 11:1, 2 Sam 7:14, Ps 2:7, Ps 82, Ps 89:26–27, Job 1:6–2:1, Gen 6:2, etc. The role of obedient servant of God being labelled his “son” is metaphorically related to the expectation of the obedience of a son in Israel to his father, especially the firstborn son.
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